In part one we explored the concepts of existence and identity. This entry will take these concepts and apply them to the person as well as to particular persons.

Clark Pinnock, an advocate for CI, argues that “the traditional view of the nature of hell” is based on “the assumption that souls are naturally immortal.”¹ A view that he notes goes back to Plato.²

If souls are naturally immortal, they must necessarily spend a conscious eternity somewhere and, if there is a Gehenna of fire, they would have to spend it alive in fiery torment.
… ‘Once [the human soul] exists, it cannot disappear; it will necessarily exist forever and endure without end.’ This has influenced theology for a long, long time … ³

In this post we will examine some of the major theories about the human soul that have influenced theology. We will rely on the preceding post, as it will draw on what it means to exist, as well as the essence and identity as they relate to the person.

In the prior post, existence was defined as being actual rather than merely conceivable or possible. It tells us that an entity is. The essence, or nature tells us what an entity is. The essence can then ground the identity of a particular (a specific statue of Zeus) as well as the larger category (statues).

To attain any
assured
knowledge
about the soul
is one of
the most 
difficult things
in the world.
– Aristotle ⁴

The body and the soul
As a starting point for examining the soul, we will note that everything that has existed, is in existence, or that will exist in the future is something that is created and sustained by God.

[The Son] is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation, for all things in heaven and on earth were created in him—all things, whether visible or invisible, whether thrones or dominions, whether principalities or powers—all things were created through him and for him. He himself is before all things and all things are held together in him. ⁵

The idea that a human, created in the image of God, is comprised of both dust (an earthly, perishable body) and a soul which animates it can be found in the creation account of Genesis.

The Lord God formed the man from the soil of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being. ⁶

In the New Testament Jesus affirms that a human is composed of both body and soul (Matt 10:28).

That the human being is a composite comprised of soul and body is a widely shared conviction among major influential thinkers on this topic including Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, and Aquinas.⁷ Nevertheless, these thinkers diverge on the question of personal identity. For example Plato locates the essence of the person primarily in the soul. This allows the soul without the body to remain the self in the afterlife. Aristotle, Augustine and Aquinas would identify the human person with the composite of the soul and body. Augustine and Aquinas will argue that the soul can subsist when separated from the body and anchor identity but would be considered incomplete without the body.

Plato and Augustine: The body and the soul
The idea that the human person is in some sense comprised of a soul and a body was present in ancient Greek thought when Socrates began his project on the examined life.

In Phaedo, Plato presents Socrates as he is about to be executed by drinking hemlock. He presents him as prepared to accept his death and uses the occasion to explore the soul.

When Plato is writing, there is then, as there is now, the prevailing view that when a person dies they cease to exist.

[men] fear that when [the soul] leaves the body her place may be nowhere, and that on that very day of death she may be destroyed and perish … issuing forth like smoke or air and vanishing away into nothingness. ⁸

Plato refutes this idea and sought to show “that when a man is dead the soul still exists and has power and intelligence.” For him the soul was the primary, incorporeal entity that carries personal identity and is capable of knowledge and rationality. It “renders the body alive” and “rational”.

the soul is in the very likeness of the divine, and immortal, and intelligible, and uniform and indissoluble, and unchangeable ⁹

Plato would further argue that the soul is naturally immortal, having the essential property life.

“What is [it] which will render the body alive?”
“The soul”
…
“What do we call principle which does not admit of death?”
“Immortal”, he said.
“And does the soul admit of death?”
“No”
“Then the soul is immortal?”
“Yes” ¹⁰

Plato defines death as the separation of the body and the soul. ¹¹Those souls that were “true disciples of philosophy” would be rewarded with bliss and the reward of remaining separate from the body. Others would be “dragged down again into the visible world.”¹²

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